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1R High School Outreach Program Neuroscience

High School Student Develops Machine Learning–Assisted Brain-Computer Interface for Seizure Detection and Mobility Support

Editor’s Note

This article is written from a first-person perspective as part of the OneResearch (1R) High School Outreach Program. The content reflects the author’s individual research experiences and interpretations and is intended to showcase early-stage scientific exploration by student researchers.

Background

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) affects an estimated 1.9 – 6 out of every 100,000 people worldwide and is characterized by progressive degeneration of motor neurons, ultimately resulting in full-body paralysis and loss of speech. ALS has a devastating personal and societal impact, with the average survival time post-diagnosis being just 2 to 5 years. While assistive technologies like eye-tracking systems and speech synthesizers have helped patients maintain communication, full-body mobility tools such as exoskeletons and neural control systems remain largely inaccessible. 

Epilepsy, on the other hand, affects over 50 million people globally, according to the World Health Organization. Out of these individuals, around 80% live in low to middle-income countries. The unpredictability of seizures can pose life-threatening risks and severely impair quality of life. While treatment through antiepileptic drugs exists, nearly 30% of patients are drug-resistant, leaving them vulnerable to sudden seizure onset. Current seizure alert systems are often reactive, not predictive. They rely on post-ictal signals such as convulsions or muscle contractions rather than underlying neural precursors.

These two conditions, one progressive, one episodic, both represent critical gaps in biomedical support systems: a need for more intuitive, personalized, and cost-effective neurological interfaces.

Design & Implementation

Brain Computer Interfaces (BCIs)

Brain Computer Interfaces (BCIs)

A brain-computer interface (BCI) is a system that allows direct communication between the brain, or associated electrical activity, and an external device, such as a computer or robotic system. BCIs are designed to bypass traditional neuromuscular pathways, enabling individuals to interact with technology using only brain signals or subtle bioelectrical inputs.

In my system, for example, the BCI identifies specific patterns related to eye blinks and muscle twitches. These blinks produce distinct electrical signals that are detected by ECG electrodes placed near the forehead and temples. The raw signals are streamed to a microcontroller, then passed into a Python-based environment where a trained Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier determines whether a blink has occurred. If a blink is detected, the BCI sends a command to activate a robotic arm, allowing the user to control movement through neural input alone.

Experimental Design

I began my research journey in 7th grade by testing the capabilities of a commercial EEG device. Initial experiments used 20–80 second interval training periods to distinguish between “blink” and “not blinking” states through time-segmented neural input. These signals, specifically artifacts related to eye and slight muscle movement, were processed by a trained classifier and translated into robotic arm motion, enabling basic control through voluntary blinks and facial twitches.

In 8th grade, I expanded this framework into a more robust, early-stage brain-computer interface (BCI) system for mobility and seizure detection. BCIs interpret brain activity and convert it into executable commands, offering new pathways for communication and control without traditional neuromuscular input. To prototype a BCI using accessible materials, I employed consumer-grade ECG sensors placed at frontal and temporal electrode positions (T9, T10, AF7, and AF8) to capture blink-associated electrical signals. Although these sensors are typically used for cardiac monitoring, they were repurposed to provide low-cost alternatives to clinical EEG systems and embedded into a 3D-printed head frame for consistent placement and reduced motion artifacts.

Signal acquisition was handled by a microcontroller and ADC, with data streamed to a Python-based processing environment. I developed a training dataset of blink vs. no-blink intervals, applying basic noise filtering and extracting features such as peak amplitude, and time-domain signal changes. A Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier was trained using an 80/20 train-test split, achieving classification accuracies exceeding 97% across trials. The model’s output activated a servo-driven robotic arm in real time, converting neural input into directional movement.

Building on this system, I adapted the architecture to begin exploring seizure prediction using EEG-style data. By extending the time windows and incorporating frequency-based features, the model was trained to identify pre-ictal patterns associated with epilepsy. While this application remained in early-stage testing, it demonstrated the potential for low-cost, ML-assisted BCIs to enhance both mobility and early neurological event detection for underserved populations.

Broader Impact

Neurological disorders like ALS and epilepsy disproportionately affect individuals in low-resource settings, where access to advanced diagnostics and assistive technologies is limited or nonexistent. Clinical-grade EEG systems can cost upwards of $10,000, and mobility-support devices like robotic exoskeletons often exceed $50,000. This puts them far beyond reach for the average patient. As a result, millions of individuals are left without the tools needed to communicate, move, or receive real-time neurological care.

This project demonstrates the potential of low-cost, machine learning–assisted brain-computer interfaces to bridge that gap. By leveraging sub-$10 ECG sensors, open-source software, and 3D-printed hardware, the system offers a scalable alternative to traditional neurotechnology. Studies have shown that brain-computer interface (BCI) systems can significantly improve functional independence in individuals with motor impairments, with some interventions leading to improvements in upper limb motor function and daily task performance of up to 70%. Additionally, seizure forecasting using wearable devices has demonstrated predictive accuracy with area under the curve (AUC) scores reaching 0.77, offering the potential to reduce seizure-related injuries for 4/6 patients through timely risk awareness.

The dual functionality of this BCI prototype, enabling robotic movement via neural input and identifying pre-ictal EEG-like patterns, addresses critical needs in response delays, safety, and improvements to day-to-day autonomy for individuals living with epilepsy or paralysis.

Looking ahead, this framework could be further scaled into wearable headsets for daily use, integrated with cloud-based monitoring platforms, or expanded to detect a wider range of neural events. With further development, this research could serve as the foundation for accessible, AI-powered neurotools that democratize healthcare access for millions worldwide.

Categories
Genetics

Linking Single-Celled Ancestors to Animal Evolution

A colony of choanoflagellates stained to show its features // ASM Journals Vol. 15, No. 9: A large colonial choanoflagellate from Mono Lake harbors live bacteria

Introduction

The origins of multicellular life have long fascinated scientists, with choanoflagellates offering a unique window into this evolutionary transition. As the closest living relatives of animals, these single-celled organisms harbor genes remarkably similar to those essential for complex biological processes in animals. Recent advancements have allowed researchers to explore the functionality of these ancient genes in modern contexts, providing insights into both evolution and potential medical applications.

Choanoflagellates: The Ancestors We Overlooked

Novel Studies Uncover Unicellular Relatives

Recent research has shed new light on the evolutionary origins of animal life by demonstrating the functional resilience of ancient genes. A collaborative study by researchers from Queen Mary University of London and the University of Hong Kong explored how a gene from choanoflagellates, free-living unicellular and colonial eukaryotes, can integrate seamlessly into the genome of modern mammals. This groundbreaking work opens new avenues in evolutionary biology and regenerative medicine.

External relationships of Choanoflagellatea // Wikipedia.com

Choanoflagellates are often described as the closest living relatives of animals. Though single-celled, their genomic architecture contains genes that mirror those involved in complex multicellular processes in animals. In this study, the researchers focused on Sox2, a gene essential for stem cell differentiation. They replaced the Sox2 gene in mouse stem cells with its choanoflagellate counterpart. The results show the engineered stem cells not only survived but also retained their functionality, ultimately producing healthy, chimeric mice with observable traits like dark eyes and patches of black fur.

Chimeric mice displaying black coat patches and eyes (indicated by arrows) representing their iPSC origin, in contrast to the wildtype mouse exhibiting a white coat and red eyes // Nature Communications 15, 9868 (2024)

What This Means for Evolutionary Biology

The findings emphasize that critical genes for multicellular development existed long before the rise of animals. The choanoflagellate version of Sox2, originally involved in more basic cellular tasks, demonstrates an extraordinary continuity of function across nearly a billion years of evolution. “We’re witnessing an extraordinary continuity of function,” said Alex de Mendoza, one of the study’s authors. This research suggests that these ancient genes laid the groundwork for the transition from single-celled organisms to complex multicellular life.

Other studies corroborate this evolutionary timeline. A recent article in eLife analyzed the genomes of 19 choanoflagellate species and identified hundreds of gene families previously thought to be animal-specific. These include genes related to immunity (e.g., Toll-like receptors) and development (e.g., Notch/Delta signaling), further demonstrating that the genomic toolkit for animal life began evolving well before multicellularity emerged.

Implications for Regenerative Medicine

Beyond evolutionary insights, this research holds promise for medical applications. By understanding how ancient genes function in modern contexts, scientists could refine techniques for stem cell engineering and regenerative therapies. The ability of choanoflagellate genes to perform roles similar to their mammalian counterparts highlights untapped potential in biomedicine. As regenerative medicine continues to push boundaries, leveraging evolutionary continuity could pave the way for innovative treatments.

Looking Forward

This research is a compelling reminder of the deep evolutionary connections that link all forms of life. It invites us to reexamine the roles of so-called “primitive” genes, not just as vestiges of the past but as vital players in current biological processes. The successful incorporation of a choanoflagellate gene into a mouse model showcases the unity of life across billions of years and underscores the importance of studying life’s simplest forms to understand its most complex manifestations.

References

Gao, Y., Tan, D.S., Girbig, M. et al. The emergence of Sox and POU transcription factors predates the origins of animal stem cells. Nat Commun 15, 9868 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54152-x

eLife. “Gene Family Innovation, Conservation and Loss on the Animal Stem Lineage.” https://elifesciences.org/articles/34226.

Hake KH, West PT, McDonald K, Laundon D, Reyes-Rivera J, Garcia De Las Bayonas A, Feng C, Burkhardt P, Richter DJ, Banfield JF, King N.2024.A large colonial choanoflagellate from Mono Lake harbors live bacteria. mBio15:e01623-24.https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01623-24

Disclaimers

Our articles are based on works by board-certified/accredited doctors and medical researchers. We do not claim to be a professional peer-reviewed publication. This article was not written by medical professionals.

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Biomedical Research

Future of drug discoveries using Quantum Computers

Photo by ThisisEngineering on Unsplash

Introduction

Advancements in computational methods are becoming increasingly more essential to innovation within medical research and development. Quantum computers are being developed as revolutionary machines that leverage quantum bits, or qubits, which can exist in a unique state called superposition. This means qubits can represent both 0 and 1 simultaneously, unlike classical bits, which are limited to being either 0 or 1. Qubits allow quantum computers to perform complex computations at speeds and precision levels that traditional supercomputers cannot match.  Quantum computing will  serve as a possible avenue of improvement in drug-development processes to keep making progress in treating unmet medical needs.

Computer-aided drug design 

Many chemists are currently focusing on discovering and developing quantum computing algorithms to solve complex electronic structures of atoms with strong electron correlations—problems that are challenging for classical computers to handle accurately. Quantum computers offer a significant advantage in these calculations, especially for applications like computer-aided drug design.

Weidman, Jared D. et al. Cell Reports Physical Science, Volume 5, Issue 9, 102105

In the pharmaceutical sector drug design is a lengthy process, as chemical compounds take time to  identify and develop. Thus, the primary objective of obtaining clinical compounds is to have the  fewest number of refinement cycles possible. This process begins by identifying a target compound (such as protein), which causes disease, and then screening millions of chemicals for their ability to bind to and neutralize it. The Molecule candidate will then enter the clinical development phase after testing tens of thousands of possible molecules in vitro for biochemical, biophysical, and biological properties.

Due to the prolonged timeline in drug design, computational methods can help in the development of appropriate molecules by offering insights and assistance on drug design to produce safer and more effective medications. It can calculate more accurately the electronic structures of molecules, which makes it possible to determine the binding strength and affinity of compounds using electronic structure methods, as well as can predict pharmacokinetic properties, which are used in how compounds are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted from the body.

Quantum-computational simulations in drug design would gain the most from creating efficient algorithms that can speed up the process and result in far better models of molecular interactions. Current methods provide high accuracy for the key systems, yet are too slow for common use in drug development. 

Discussion

In the near future, quantum computing may prove to be useful for certain quantum chemical computations. However, it is too early a phase of research to correctly anticipate when the pharmaceutical sector will completely take advantage of every aspect of quantum computing for its various uses. As conventional quantum-chemistry methods are currently unable to adequately and reliably characterize quantum systems, more advancements in hardware and the creation of innovative algorithms will be essential in the coming years.

References

Kang, M. et.al. (2024). Seeking a quantum advantage with trapped-ion quantum simulations of condensed-phase chemical dynamics. Nature reviews. Chemistry, 8(5), 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-024-00595-1 

Santagati, R., Aspuru-Guzik, A., Babbush, R. et al. Drug design on quantum computers. Nat. Phys. 20, 549–557 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41567-024-02411-5 

Jared D. et.al. (2024).Quantum computing and chemistry, Cell Reports Physical Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2024.102105 

Brooks, Michael. “Quantum Computers: What Are They Good For?” Nature, vol. 617, no. 7962, 24 May 2023, pp. S1–S3, www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01692-9, https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-01692-9 

Disclaimers

Our articles are based on works by board-certified/accredited doctors and medical researchers. We do not claim to be a professional peer-reviewed publication. This article was not written by medical professionals.

Categories
Biomedical Research Molecular Biology

Novel “Nearly-endless” Protein Pushes the Boundaries of Molecular Biology

Lab work. // National Cancer Institute on Unsplash.com

Background

Within the past century, biotechnology and molecular biology have seen remarkable progress as a result of explorations into anti-phage bacterial defense mechanisms, such as restriction enzymes and CRISPR-Cas systems. The discovery of restriction enzymes nearly sixty years ago opened the door to precise cutting and manipulation of DNA sequences, thus marking the birth of modern genetic engineering. The accessibility of genome editing ramped up decades later with the development of CRISPR-Cas systems as gene editing tools, revealing unparalleled precision and versatility.

Anti-phage bacterial defense systems have led to some of the most intriguing scientific breakthroughs in the world of biotechnology, from synthetic biology to gene therapies. Despite this, hundreds of additional phage defense systems remain unexplored.

Defense-Associated Reverse Transcriptases

Reverse transcriptases (RTs) are enzymes that catalyze the polymerization of DNA from an RNA template. Defense-associated reverse transcriptases (DRTs) are novel reverse transcriptases involved in bacterial anti-phage defense, however the mechanisms by which DRTs confer anti-phage defense are largely unknown. Characterization of these pathways may elucidate potential diverse biotechnological applications.

DRT2

Recently the function of the defense-associated reverse transcriptase 2 (DRT2), has been discovered. The genes encoding for DRT2 consist of only two components: an RT domain and a noncoding RNA (ncRNA). These minimal systems are sufficient to mount an abortive infection (Abi) response in order to defend against foreign invaders.

Within the defense pathway undertaken by DRT2 a portion of the ncRNA is converted into ssDNA by the RT through rolling-circle reverse transcription (RCRT), resulting in the formation of long cDNA products with concatenated repeats. This cDNA product contains an open-reading-frame (ORF) that lacks any in-frame stop codons and is thus referred to as neo (nearly endless ORF). When under phage infection, the single-stranded cDNA undergoes second-strand synthesis to become dsDNA, which is then transcribed into concatenated mRNA. Following this, the mRNA is translated into a Neo protein which leads to programmed cell dormancy, the mechanism by which the cell defends against bacteriophages.

DRT2 mechanism// Jordan Lewis, heavily inspired by Tang et al.

This defense mechanism highlights novel coding potential in the genome by generating genes from RNA templates, challenging the traditional understanding of how genetic information is stored.

Discussion

While it has been demonstrated that the functional outcome of Neo expression is cell growth arrest, the biological pathway connecting Neo expression to growth arrest remains unclear. Through continuing to pursue the investigation of the Neo protein and its role in the DRT2 defense mechanism, science could gain further insights into newfound complexities in the central dogma of molecular biology may aid in opening the door for future potential medical applications

Resources

Loenen W. et al. (2014) Highlights of the DNA cutters: a short history of the restriction enzymes, Nucleic Acids Res. 42(1):3-19

Jinek M. et al. (2012) A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity, Science. 337(6096):816-21.

Georjon H, Bernheim A. (2023) The highly diverse antiphage defence systems of bacteria, Nat Rev Microbiol. 21(10):686-700.

Gonzalez-Delgado A. et al. (2021) Prokaryotic reverse transcriptases: from retroelements to specialized defense systems, FEMS Microbiol Rev. 45(6)

Tang S. et al. (2024) De novo gene synthesis by an antiviral reverse transcriptase, bioRxiv 2024.05.08.593200; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.05.08.593200

Disclaimers

Our articles are based on works by board-certified/accredited doctors and medical researchers. We do not claim to be a professional peer-reviewed publication. This article was not written by medical professionals.

Categories
Biomedical Research Neuroscience

The Q-Collar Explained: Could a Necklace Prevent Concussions?

Drue Tranquill wearing the Q-Collar. // nytimes.com

Introduction

Concussions are a common type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) caused by the forcible motion of your brain into your skull. Due to their prevalence in sports and long-term effects on cognitive health, these injuries  have captured significant attention in recent years. The Q-Collar is a newly FDA-approved device  designed to mitigate the risk of concussions, and it markets itself to be a  promising innovation in this field. The Q30 Innovations company advertises  as the only FDA-cleared device that protects the brain during a collision.

How does the Q-Collar Work?

The Q-Collar is a relatively simple device that is worn in the same fashion as a  necklace. The device is designed to put pressure directly on the jugular veins, increasing the blood volume in the head. When impact occurs, the extra blood volume is said to act as a pillow for the brain, slowing down its motion and reducing the force with which it hits the skull.

Blood Flow from Jugular Veins to Head. // Sciencemuseum.org.uk

Device Efficacy 

With this device sold directly to consumers, not prescribed by physicians, and many critics inquire if it can produce the desired results. Many short-term studies have been conducted on its efficacy following the devices’  FDA approval in 2021. A study conducted by the FDA , determined that  significant changes were found in deeper tissues of the brain involved in the transmission of electrical nerve signals (white matter regions) in 106 of the 145 (73%) participants in the no-Collar group, while no significant changes in these regions were found in 107 of the 139 (77%) of the group who wore the Q Collar. This study was a prospective, longitudinal study with 284 high school football players in the USA. These results show that the Q-Collar helped lower changes found in white matter by 40% throughout one season.

An additional study conducted by Myer et al. found reduced white matter diffusivity alteration after an entire competitive season. Both studies provide evidence to help support the fact that the Q-Collar may , in fact, mitigate the risk of concussions with impacts on the head.

Drawbacks

The most apparent drawback of the Q-Collar is the need for peer-reviewed evidence to support its theory. The Q-Collar was designed 12 years ago and only FDA-approved three years ago, so this apparent lack of longitudinal evidence is expected.

A second potential drawback for consumers would be the high price tag. This device is a multi-hundred-dollar investment that might deter low-income and non-pro sports teams from using it. 

Conclusion

The Q-Collar is an exciting advancement in preventing athletic brain injuries. Its sleek design offers a decrease in risk for concussions with little to no loss of mobility. As research continues and more data becomes available, the actual value of the Q-Collar will become more apparent. For now, it is a promising step forward in concussion prevention. The development and adaptation of more protective equipment will hopefully lead to a world less debilitated by brain injuries.

Resources

Office of the Commissioner. FDA authorizes the marketing of novel device to help protect athletes’ brains during head impacts. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. February 26, 2021. Accessed August 2024. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-authorizes-marketing-novel-device-help-protect-athletes-brains-during-head-impacts.


Q-collar: Helps protect athletes from brain injury. Q30. Accessed August, 2024. https://q30.com/products/q-collar.


Myer GD, et al. Analysis of head impact exposure and brain microstructure response in a season-long application of a jugular vein compression collar: A prospective, neuroimaging investigation in American football. British Journal of Sports Medicine. October 1, 2016. Accessed August 2024. https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/20/1276.short.

Disclaimers

Our articles are based on works by board-certified/accredited doctors and medical researchers. We do not claim to be a professional peer-reviewed publication. This article was not written by medical professionals.

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Biomedical Research

Bioglass: A New Frontier in Biomedical Applications

Broken bone // Photo by Harlie Raethel on Unsplash.com

Introduction

Bioglass is an innovative biomaterial renowned for its bioactivity and ability to bond with bone and soft tissues. This class of bioactive materials, composed mainly of silica (SiO₂), calcium oxide (CaO), sodium oxide (Na₂O), and phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅), has seen significant advancements in recent years. Originally developed for bone regeneration, bioglass is now at the forefront of medical applications, including tissue engineering, antimicrobial coatings, and drug delivery systems. These advancements stem from cutting-edge research in surface modifications, composite materials, and functional coatings that enhance the properties and applications of bioglass in the biomedical field.

The Chemistry Behind Bioglass

The bioactivity of bioglass is rooted in its chemical composition and the reactions it undergoes upon exposure to physiological fluids. When a medical professional implants bioglass into the body, it undergoes a series of reactions starting with the leaching of sodium and calcium ions, which raises the pH, initiating the formation of a silica gel layer on the glass surface. This gel layer serves as a template for the nucleation of hydroxyapatite, the mineral phase of bone. Simultaneously, the release of calcium and phosphate ions into the surrounding tissue aids the deposition of new bone minerals, thus bridging the gap between the implant and the natural bone. Recent innovations have fine-tuned this process by introducing dopants like magnesium, strontium, and zinc. These dopants enhance the bioactive response, improve mechanical strength, and tailor the degradation rates to match tissue healing processes.

Surface-Modified Bioglass

Recent studies, such as those published in the Journal of Nanoparticle Research, have focused on enhancing the bioactivity of bioglass. By altering the surface chemistry, researchers have significantly improved the material’s antibacterial properties and its ability to promote angiogenesis ( the formation of new blood vessels, which is critical for tissue regeneration). Surface modifications, such as the incorporation of silver, copper, or zinc ions, make bioglass more effective in preventing infections in implanted materials. These ions disrupt bacterial cell walls, leading to cell death, while simultaneously promoting the formation of hydroxyapatite—one of the key components in bone mineralization. This dual function of bioglass is crucial in applications such as bone regeneration and wound healing.

Copper-Based Composites: Expanding the Horizons of Bioglass Applications

In addition to traditional applications, bioglass has found novel implementations in advanced electronic and biomedical devices through the development of copper-based composites. A study published in Nanoscale Advances revealed that incorporating nano-sized particles into copper matrices enhances the material’s mechanical strength, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity. These properties are crucial for next-generation electronic packaging and biomedical devices that demand both durability and high performance. The use of such composites is particularly promising for developing multifunctional implants and devices that require both bioactivity and robust mechanical properties​. The copper ions also play a role in angiogenesis, further supporting tissue regeneration.

Advanced Bioactive Glasses

The field of tissue engineering has benefited immensely from the development of novel advanced bioactive glasses. Recent breakthroughs involve the integration of elements such as strontium and boron into bioglass. Strontium ions mimic calcium ions and are readily incorporated into new bone tissue, where they not only enhance bone density but also slow bone resorption by inhibiting osteoclast activity. Boron, on the other hand, improves the glass’s solubility, allowing for more controlled degradation rates, which is essential for the gradual release of therapeutic ions. These additions not only enhance the material’s ability to regenerate bone but also improve its antibacterial activity. This dual functionality is essential for preventing infections and promoting the rapid healing of bone defects, making bioglass an increasingly attractive option for orthopedic and dental applications.

Portrait of scientist looking under microscope in medical development laboratory, analyzing petri dish sample // freepik.com

Functional Coatings and Hybrid Materials: Paving the Way for Next-Generation Implants

Bioglass is also being explored in combination with other materials to create hybrid systems that offer enhanced properties. For example, integrating bioglass with hydroxyapatite has led to improved osseointegration (the formation of a direct interface between an implant and bone, without intervening soft tissue) and mechanical strength. The hydroxyapatite layer mimics natural bone minerals, promoting the adhesion and proliferation of cells that form and heal bones (osteoblasts), while the bioglass beneath continues to release ions that support bone growth and fight infection. These hybrid materials are particularly useful in the development of long-lasting implants and prosthetics, where both bioactivity and mechanical integrity are crucial. The ongoing research in this area suggests that such multifunctional materials could revolutionize the design and functionality of future biomedical devices​.

Conclusion

The evolution of bioglass technology is a significant leap forward in biomedical science. The innovations in surface modifications, composite materials, and hybrid systems not only enhance the performance of bioglass in traditional applications but also expand its potential into new therapeutic areas. As research continues to advance the boundaries of what bioglass can achieve, it is poised to play a transformative role in regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, and beyond. The future of bioglass is bright, with its applications extending well beyond the realm of bone regeneration, into the development of smarter, more effective biomedical devices.

Resources

Abodunrin, O. D., Bricha, M., & El Mabrouk, K. (2024). Beyond bone: A systematic review on bioactive glass innovations and breakthroughs in skeletal muscle regeneration. Biomedical Materials & Devices. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44174-024-00220-1

Kaou, M. H., Furkó, M., Balázsi, K., & Balázsi, C. (2023). Advanced bioactive glasses: The newest achievements and breakthroughs in the area. Nanomaterials, 13(16), 2287. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13162287

Taye, M. B., Ningsih, H. S., & Shih, S.-J. (2024). Exploring the advancements in surface-modified bioactive glass: Enhancing antibacterial activity, promoting angiogenesis, and modulating bioactivity. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 26(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-024-05935-2Zhang, G., Zhen, C., Yang, J., Wang, J., Wang, S., Fang, Y., & Shang, P. (2024). Recent advances of nanoparticles on bone tissue engineering and bone cells. Nanoscale Advances, 6(8), 1957–1973. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3na00851g

Categories
Cancer Oncology

Common Skin Cancers & What to Look For 

Dermatologist examining patient’s birthmark with magnifying glass in clinic, closeup // Unsplash.com

Disclaimer: This article was not written by medical professionals. If you suspect any signs of skin cancer, please contact your dermatologist. 

Introduction

Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer worldwide, accounting for one-third of all cancer diagnoses. Fortunately, skin cancer is generally easy to diagnose and, when caught early, is very treatable, with a low mortality rate. 

Skin cancer can be broken down into two main categories: melanoma skin cancer and non-melanoma skin cancer. Non-melanoma skin cancer can be further broken down into basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).  According to Mayo Clinic, risk factors include excessive sun exposure, old age, radiation, having a fair complexion, immunosuppression, and a personal or family history of skin cancer.

Basal cell carcinoma is the most prevalent form of skin cancer and also the least dangerous due to its low probability of metastasizing. Squamous cell carcinoma occurs more often than malignant melanoma, however, it tends to be less aggressive and less invasive. All three forms of skin cancer can be diagnosed by a pathologist viewing a skin biopsy taken by a dermatologist.

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Basal cell carcinoma is the most common form of skin cancer, and is often the easiest to identify. BCC can look like a smooth waxy bump on the skin. Pain, tenderness, itching, and bleeding are all signs that indicate a bump needs to be examined by a dermatologist. Some patients also report persistent pimples that don’t go away, which can be a warning sign of basal cell carcinoma.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Most squamous cell carcinomas begin as rough, raised, dry spots called actinic keratoses. Medical professionals can treat these lesions with liquid nitrogen, topical fluorouracil cream, or red light therapy. If left untreated, actinic keratoses can develop into SCC. Skincancer.org states that SCC can look like “a persistent, scaly red patch with irregular borders that sometimes crusts or bleeds.”

Malignant Melanoma

Melanoma presents as one or multiple dark spots on the skin. This type of cancer expands rapidly and can metastasize to the lymph nodes and other organs. To differentiate melanomas from other skin spots, The American Academy of Dermatology developed the ABCDE memory mnemonic: asymmetry, border, color, diameter, and evolving. Following their guidelines, if a dark spot is asymmetrical, has jagged borders, various color shades, a diameter larger than a pencil eraser, or is changing in any way, it may indicate a malignant melanoma, and should be evaluated by a dermatologist. 

Malignant Melanoma // Healthline/Shutterstock

Treatment

There are many approaches to skin cancer prevention, but the most feasible is adopting measures like wearing sunscreen with at least 30 SPF daily (and reapplying every two hours) or simply avoiding significant sun exposure.

Skin cancer treatment begins with a visit to a medical professional who can perform a biopsy on the concerning area. Once skin cancer is diagnosed after a biopsy, treatment typically involves surgery. In some cases, mild forms of squamous cell carcinoma called SCC in situ (superficial squamous cell carcinoma that has not spread) can be treated with liquid nitrogen therapy. In other cases, skin cancers will have to be excised (removed surgically). If the cancer is located in a place with limited skin to work with, such as the face or nose, the patient may opt for a Mohs surgery. Mohs surgery is a tissue-sparing surgery technique that takes place in stages. The physician will operate in stages taking as little tissue as possible and looking at it under a microscope. If there is more cancer under the microscope, they will continue with another stage, and this process is repeated until all margins are clear and the patient is cancer-free with as little skin missing as possible. According to Dr. Tolkachjov, medical professionals do not begin reconstruction until after all the margins are confirmed to be histologically tumor-free.

References

What to look for: Abcdes of melanoma. American Academy of Dermatology. (n.d.). https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/skin-cancer/find/at-risk/abcdes 

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (n.d.). Basal cell carcinoma. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/basal-cell-carcinoma/symptoms-causes/syc-20354187

professional, C. C. medical. (n.d.). Melanoma: Symptoms, staging & treatment. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14391-melanoma

Squamous cell carcinoma warning signs and images. The Skin Cancer Foundation. (2023, January 9). https://www.skincancer.org/skin-cancer-information/squamous-cell-carcinoma/scc-warning-signs-and-images/

Tolkachjov, S. N., Brodland, D. G., Coldiron, B. M., Fazio, M. J., Hruza, G. J., Roenigk, R. K., Rogers, H. W., Zitelli, J. A., Winchester, D. S., & Harmon, C. B. (2017). Understanding mohs micrographic surgery. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 92(8), 1261–1271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.04.009 WebMD. (n.d.). Skin cancer: Melanoma, basal cell, and squamous cell carcinoma. WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/melanoma-skin-cancer/skin-cancer

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1R High School Outreach Program COVID-19

How Telemedicine Impacts Healthcare Post-COVID

Doctor holding phone. // Unsplash.com/National Cancer Institute

Introduction

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, our systems and institutions were tasked with quickly adapting their services to an increasingly virtual audience. This is particularly true of the medical world, where telemedicine rapidly became the go-to solution for socially-distanced medical needs.

Telemedicine, or telehealth, is the delivery of healthcare services through digital platforms, allowing patients to connect with their healthcare providers remotely. The ability to meet with physicians from the comfort of your home became a necessity during the COVID-19 pandemic, and since then, telemedicine has remained a key aspect of nationwide healthcare. According to Stephanie Watson at Harvard Health, “76 percent of hospitals in the U.S. connect doctors and patients remotely via telehealth, up from 35 percent a decade ago.”

While it promotes accessibility and convenience for patients and physicians alike, the drawbacks of telemedicine include quality concerns and potential technological barriers for certain demographics. This raises the question: Is telemedicine obsolete in a post-COVID world, or do the benefits of remote healthcare outweigh the costs?

Benefits

The primary benefit of telemedicine post-COVID is the increased accessibility to healthcare for populations in rural areas, those without reliable transportation, and immobile or busy patients. Patients without the privileges required to attend regular, in-person medical visits are much better accommodated by a virtual model. This system also increases convenience for the vast majority of patients, whether or not they fall into one of these demographics. 

During virtual visits, clinicians are also less likely to be exposed to infection or disease, further maximizing the care they are able to provide long-term. 

Additionally, telemedicine provides support for patients’ continuity of care, offering easier opportunities for follow-up appointments and check-ins for those with chronic conditions. Further, the implementation of telemedicine can reduce “medication misuse, unnecessary emergency department visits, and prolonged hospitalizations.” 

Drawbacks

Although telemedicine provides increased accessibility to healthcare, this doesn’t mean patients are taking advantage of it. According to a Stanford study, “increased telemedicine access is associated with a modest, 3.5% increase in the utilization of primary care.” While 3.5% translates to a large number of patients, it still represents a smaller population than expected.

One of the largest concerns regarding the wide implementation of telemedicine is the quality of care. The Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Evaluating Clinical Applications of Telemedicine has identified three key quality issues: “overuse of care (e.g., unnecessary telemedicine consultations); underuse of care (e.g., failure to refer a patient for a necessary consultation); and poor technical or interpersonal performance (e.g., incorrect interpretation of pathology specimen or inattention to patient concerns).” 

Further, telehealth creates a digital divide, which causes particular difficulty in regard to older and low-income demographics. According to a Mayo Clinic study, the concordance of diagnoses between in-person and virtual appointments was 86.9%, and “for every 10-year increase in the patients’ age, the odds of receiving a concordant diagnosis by video telemedicine decreased by 9%.”

Doctor typing on computer. // Unsplash.com/National Cancer Institute

Physician’s Perspective

Dr. Maryam Kashi, a gastroenterologist with AdventHealth in Central Florida, operates on a hybrid model in providing patient care. Since 2020, she has run 2 days of in-person clinic and 3 days of virtual clinic each week. 

According to her own experience, Dr. Kashi believes that quality of care is held to the same standard in both in-person and virtual visits. She says that her hybrid model allows her to ensure that all patients with issues requiring physical exams or other in-person needs are able to be accommodated. Meanwhile, patients who only need a brief post-op check-in are able to meet with Dr. Kashi virtually at their convenience. 

Dr. Kashi contends that her current hybrid model, which includes a majority of virtual visits, elicits appreciative and receptive responses from patients as they experience greater convenience and access to healthcare. 

Conclusion

Telemedicine offers an accessible and efficient alternative to in-person care. While there are concerns regarding the quality of care and an obvious digital barrier, the great benefits of the service make a case for its continued usage beyond COVID restrictions. Hybrid models, like Dr. Kashi’s, ensure that patients are able to receive the care they need, regardless of physical or virtual limitations. Ultimately, adopting an inclusive system that includes telemedicine guarantees that the greatest number of patients acquire appropriate medical care.

References

Bart M. Demaerschalk, MD. “Clinician Diagnostic Concordance with Video Telemedicine at Mayo Clinic from March to June 2020.” JAMA Network Open, JAMA Network, 2 Sept. 2022, jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2795871. 

Gajarawala, Shilpa N, and Jessica N Pelkowski. “Telehealth Benefits and Barriers.” The Journal for Nurse Practitioners : JNP, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 17 Feb. 2021, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7577680/#bib3. 

Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Evaluating Clinical Applications of Telemedicine. “Evaluating the Effects of Telemedicine on Quality, Access, and Cost.” Telemedicine: A Guide to Assessing Telecommunications in Health Care., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Jan. 1996, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK45438/. 

Watson, Stephanie. “Telehealth: The Advantages and Disadvantages.” Harvard Health, 12 Oct. 2020, www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/telehealth-the-advantages-and-disadvantages. 

Zeltzer, Dan, et al. “The Impact of Increased Access to Telemedicine.” Stanford, 2023, web.stanford.edu/~leinav/pubs/JEEA2018.pdf. 

Categories
Biomedical Research

How Bacteriophages Could Stop the Antimicrobial Resistance Crisis

Bacterial colonies on a plate. // CDC on Unsplash.com

Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve to become drug-resistant, pushing antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines to practical obsoletism and thus increasing the difficulty of infection treatment. The prevalence of AMR is a pressing issue, cited by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top 10 global public health threats facing humanity.

A promising threat to AMR is the use of “phage therapy”, a method of utilizing bacteriophages (phages) to eliminate specific bacterial strains.

Phages are viruses of bacteria that evolve to be extremely specialized, targeting only their certain type of bacterial cells and not affecting human cells. This opens a door for phage therapy to be used within the human body against bacterial infections, rather than solely antibiotics.

In the 1940s, the Western world saw chemical-based small-molecule antibiotics usurp potential research into phage therapies. Continued research into the potential of phage therapy allowed members of the former USSR to harness bacteriophages to treat disease. Phage therapy is now commonplace in Eastern Europe, specifically in Russia and Georgia where it is offered over-the-counter.

Dependency upon antibiotics has resulted in a fight against antimicrobial resistance, however, phage therapy may just be the method to bring us out of it.

Advantages of Phage Therapy

Bacteriophages occur abundantly on Earth, from the water of the oceans to the human GI tract. To attack bacterial cells, phages initiate the lytic cycle, wherein they first puncture the bacterium and then inject their own genetic information. The cell becomes a metaphorical warehouse for new phages, producing and assembling phages until the cell is full. Phages within the cell release endolysin, an enzyme that signals the end of the lytic cycle and causes the bacterial cell to explode, releasing brand-new phages.

There are many advantages to employing phage therapy over traditional antibiotic approaches.

Phage viruses bind to a bacterial cell, injecting their genetic material. // Biophoto Associates/SPL

Bactericide:

Phages are bactericidal, meaning they kill their host bacteria. However, some antibiotics are only bacteriostatic and cause a bacterium to become stuck within its stationary phase of growth rather than killing it, leaving behind the viable cell and opening a pathway for potential AMR.

Dosage:

As phages undergo the lytic cycle they self-amplify in an exponential fashion, which could potentially allow for a phage therapy to be effective with single or very low dosages. Lingering in the body after infection is not a worry, as phages only continue to multiply as they are killing bacteria.

Flora Bacteria:

Normal flora bacteria, “good” bacteria of the body, do not generally fall into the extremely specific target ranges of phages, which means they are almost totally unaffected by their presence in the human body. When antibiotics are introduced into the body, however, they tend to wreak havoc on any bacterium they come into contact with, including the normal flora that inhabits our bodies and aids us in many everyday functions.

Resistance:

When bacteria develop resistance to a chemical-based antibiotic it resembles an en masse revolt against one “villain”. Yet, bacteria find it relatively more difficult to develop resistance against phages due to their specific host ranges, since there is no single “villain”. Additionally, as bacteria evolve against phages, the phages have the capability to evolve right along with them, protecting the body against any bacterial strains that develop resistance.

FDA Approval

While phage therapy seems a promising opportunity, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) agency has yet to approve any therapies. As phage therapies are classified as biological products by the FDA, any manufacturing needs to adhere to standards like GMP, preclinical research, and all stages of clinical trials. This approval process is a tedious effort, however, as of October 2023 the US has the most phage-related Industry-Sponsored Trials (ISTs) on the worldwide scale, showing there is significant industry-related innovation on this front. Some examples of promising phage therapies in clinical trials within the US include WPP-201 for chronic venous leg ulcers and PreforPro for gastrointestinal distress.

Some of these ISTs are in their third phase of clinical trials, wherein the phage therapies are being tested for large-scale efficiency and comparison to currently market-available competitors. This is the final stage of testing prior to a drug or treatment to be submitted to the FDA for approval.

Despite the many advantages of phage therapy, there is still room for major disadvantages that are avoided through thorough testing prior to FDA approval. Namely, phages possess a narrow host range, inherent biological nature, and unfamiliarity within traditional Western medicine. For these reasons, along with the lengthy approval process, there is still time to go before Americans see phage therapies available to them for treatment.

Although the 1940s saw a shift away from bacteriophage research within Western countries, as time progresses, they could still very well be our savior from the self-inflicted antimicrobial resistance crisis.

References

Carroll-Portillo, A., & Lin, H. C. (2019). Bacteriophage and the innate immune system: Access and signaling. Microorganisms, 7(12), 625. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7120625

Durr, H. A., & Leipzig, N. D. (2023). Advancements in bacteriophage therapies and delivery for bacterial infection. Materials Advances, 4(5), 1249–1257. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ma00980c

Furfaro, L. L., Payne, M. S., and Chang, B. J. (2018). Bacteriophage therapy: clinical trials and regulatory hurdles. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 8:376. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00376

Ledford, H. (2023, June 26). Why phage viruses could be the key to treating deadly infections – if they can be harnessed safely. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01982-2

Loc-Carrillo, C., & Abedon, S. T. (2011). Pros and cons of phage therapy. Bacteriophage, 1(2), 111–114. https://doi.org/10.4161/bact.1.2.14590

Strathdee, S. A., Hatfull, G. F., Mutalik, V. K., & Schooley, R. T. (2023). Phage therapy: From biological mechanisms to future directions. Cell, 186(1), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.11.017

World Health Organization. (n.d.). Antimicrobial resistance. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance

Yang, Q., Le, S., Zhu, T., & Wu, N. (2023, September 6). Regulations of phage therapy across the world. Frontiers. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1250848/full#:~:text=While%20there%20is%20no%20FDA,clinical%20trial%20(Table%201).

Categories
Commentary COVID-19

Debunked: RFK Jr. Claims COVID is ‘Ethnically Targeted’

RFK Jr. speaking at press event in NYC. / NYPost

Recent statements from 2024 Democratic presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy Jr. have drawn great public attention. Speaking at a press event in New York City, he claimed that COVID-19 “disproportionately attacks certain races,” particularly Caucasians and Black people, with Ashkenazi Jews and Chinese being seemingly more immune. Kennedy attributed these disparities to genetic variations of the host cell receptor, ACE2, a key player in the virus’s infectious cycle. He insinuated that this is proof that SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, was a biological weapon designed to target certain ethnicities. But how sound are these alarming claims?

First, let’s look at the specific study Kennedy linked to on Twitter to validate his claim. The paper investigated the correlation between allele frequencies of certain ACE2 variants and their predicted effects on its ability to bind the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, a crucial step in the infectious cycle of the virus. For instance, the p.Met383Thr and p.Asp427Tyr variants, which the article alleges are linked to worse COVID outcomes, have frequencies of just 0.003% and 0.01%, respectively. Their rarity suggests that they are unlikely to meaningfully affect large population groups. Not only are these variants incredibly rare, but they are also based on alleles associated with adverse outcomes for SARS-CoV-1, not SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing the COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, the information from this study should not be directly applied to the current pandemic and certainly cannot prove an ethnic targeting of the virus.

Another critical study that disproves Kennedy’s claim revolves around ACE2 variants but examines them in relation to SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility, unlike the former study. Even in this research, the ACE2 variants that could affect susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 are extremely rare, with maximum prevalence values ranging from 0.00003 to 0.006. For example, an ACE2 variant that was found to increase spike protein binding was found at a frequency of only 3 in 10,000 Latino/Admixed American samples. Consequently, the low occurrence rates of these variants indicates that their impact on broad racial or ethnic groups is statistically insignificant when it comes to widespread racial or ethnic susceptibility.

Upon close examination, it’s clear that Kennedy’s claims lack robust scientific backing. While it’s true that COVID-19 has impacted different communities in different ways, it’s not due to any supposed “genetic targeting” inherent in the virus. Instead, this disparity arises from a multitude of factors, including access to healthcare, occupation types, living conditions, systemic racial disparities in healthcare, and perhaps biological variations unrelated to host cell receptor ACE2.

The assertion that COVID-19 is “ethnically targeted” is not only scientifically unsound but also has the potential to sow confusion and fear among the public. As we continue to grapple with this global health crisis, let’s keep the discourse grounded in verifiable science and promote unity rather than divisive misinformation.

References
  • Hou, Y., Zhao, J., Martin, W., Kallianpur, A., Chung, M. K., Jehi, L., Sharifi, N., Erzurum, S., Eng, C., & Cheng, F. (2020). New insights into genetic susceptibility of COVID-19: An ACE2 and TMPRSS2 polymorphism analysis. BMC Medicine, 18(1), 216. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01673-z
  • Levine, J. (2023, July 15). RFK Jr. Says COVID was “ethnically targeted” to spare Jews. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2023/07/15/rfk-jr-says-covid-was-ethnically-targeted-to-spare-jews/
  • MacGowan, S. A., Barton, M. I., Kutuzov, M., Dushek, O., Van Der Merwe, P. A., & Barton, G. J. (2022). Missense variants in human ACE2 strongly affect binding to SARS-CoV-2 Spike providing a mechanism for ACE2 mediated genetic risk in Covid-19: A case study in affinity predictions of interface variants. PLOS Computational Biology, 18(3), e1009922. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009922